By Isabel Hawkins, Ph.D.

Abstract

Informal science learning (ISL) organizations—such as science centers, children’s museums, botanical gardens, and zoos—play a key role in how the public engages with STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics). These free-choice environments foster curiosity, lifelong learning, and hands-on science education outside the classroom. Yet despite long-standing efforts, Latinx, among other communities, remain significantly underrepresented and underserved both within STEM fields and across ISL institutions. This persistent gap raises important questions about access and how science is communicated and experienced across diverse audiences. This article introduces Comunalidad (ko·moo·na·li·dad), a Zapotec Indigenous framework developed by Oaxacan philosopher Dr. Jaime Martínez Luna, as a powerful lens for reimagining Latinx engagement in STEM. Rooted in collective identity, reciprocity, and relationships with place and community, Comunalidad shifts the focus from individual achievement to shared, relational learning and sustained practices of belonging. We highlight how this framework can inform more inclusive and culturally sustaining STEM practices in ISL through exhibit design, programming, communications, and practitioner professional development. Drawing from museum-based examples, we explore how the components of Comunalidad—Relationship to Place, Reciprocity, Self-determination, and Fiesta—can honor Latinx cultural expressions of STEM and challenge dominant paradigms. By centering cultural knowledge systems and relational ways of knowing, ISL organizations can move beyond outreach to foster deeper, more transformative engagement rooted in community agency and cultural sovereignty.

I. Introduction

Informal science learning (ISL) spaces offer valuable opportunities for science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) engagement beyond the classroom. However, Latinx (1) communities remain persistently underrepresented and underserved in both STEM and ISL, raising concerns about equitable access and inclusion (National Science Board 2024). ISL organizations are at a critical juncture as they explore new approaches to (STEM) education and relational models of engagement (Durall et al. 2021). Long rooted in Western, or Eurocentric, scientific traditions, ISL institutions are being called to critically examine whose knowledge is valued, how it is presented, and who has access to shaping science narratives. This moment calls for a rethinking of science learning spaces as participatory environments that support diverse ways of knowing and foster meaningful connections with Latinx and other communities. By embracing relational teaching and learning methodologies, or pedagogies, and culturally diverse worldviews of learning grounded in trust, reciprocity, and long-term partnerships, ISL organizations can evolve from authoritative sources of information to collaborative spaces of exploration and shared inquiry (Neves and Campos 2022).

II. The Role of Culture in Learning

For decades, education and learning—including STEM learning—have been understood as cultural processes where all people, regardless of cultural backgrounds or nuanced intersectional identities, have the capacity to think critically and learn about the world through diverse ways of knowing. The way we pursue this capacity, and the decision whether to pursue it in the first place, is culturally dependent. Maddock (1981) emphasized that both science and science education are inherently cultural activities that are deeply embedded in local contexts and shaped by, and contributing to, the broader cultural framework of society.

Nasir et al. (2006) emphasize that all learners have the intellectual capacity to engage in rigorous thinking, including in STEM, but the ways they engage—and the value placed on certain forms of knowledge—are shaped by cultural practices, identities, and social environments. The view that educational considerations concerning STEM should account for this wider cultural perspective has been largely embraced by the education field, with various sociocultural theories becoming foundational to understanding how people learn STEM in formal and informal settings (e.g., Cole 1996; Heath 1983; Rogoff, 2003).

In 1995, Gloria Ladson-Billings introduced culturally relevant pedagogy (CRP), a framework that centers students’ cultural identities and experiences, particularly those excluded from dominant educational narratives. CRP has become foundational for efforts to broaden participation in STEM and other disciplines. Building on this work, scholars have developed related approaches: culturally sustaining pedagogies aim to maintain and nurture students’ cultural and linguistic practices (Paris & Alim 2017; Smith et al. 2022); culturally revitalizing pedagogies seek to restore traditions and languages disrupted by historical injustices (McCarty & Lee 2019; Thevenot 2022); and third space pedagogies create hybrid learning environments where students blend everyday and academic knowledge (Gupta 2015; Gutiérrez et al. 2017; Stapleton & Reif 2022). Other key frameworks include funds of knowledge, which leverage students’ home and community experiences as assets (González et al. 2005), and Comunalidad, an Indigenous model emphasizing collective cultural lifeways and community well-being (Martínez Luna 2009; Rendón Monzón 2003).

While the various pedagogies mentioned above have distinct histories, philosophical orientations, and definitions, they all center the importance of culture in enabling learning in general and STEM learning in particular. The STEM endeavor is understood as a cultural process where it is crucial for science teaching to make meaningful connections to the cultural knowledge, experiences, and ways of knowing of students and their communities (Bell et al. 2018; Paulson et al. 2023).

Compare, for example, “culturally relevant,” “culturally revitalizing,” and “culturally sustaining” in the context of STEM in informal learning environments. These concepts may sound similar but can be very different in practice. Broadly, “culturally relevant” pedagogies are about authentically connecting STEM to peoples’ lives, cultures, identities, and experiences. “Culturally revitalizing” and “culturally sustaining” pedagogies go a step further by taking an active stance to value, uphold, and maintain a group’s culturally relevant practices, literacies, languages, reciprocity practices, and other forms of cultural expression—including STEM. Thus, “relevancy” is a necessary component of “revitalization” and “sustainability,” and one should consider these aspects as interconnected and dynamic, not as a linear process. Comunalidad considers aspects of cultural expression holistically, and serves to weave the above concepts.

III. What Is Comunalidad?

The concept of Comunalidad, as articulated by Indigenous Zapotec philosopher Dr. Jaime Martínez Luna, represents a foundational framework for understanding the sociopolitical and cultural life of Indigenous communities in Oaxaca, Mexico. It is rooted in a history of colonial resistance and the sustained relationship with ancestral territories from which distinct biocultural richness emerges. Rather than a theoretical construct, Comunalidad encompasses community experiences and a collective philosophy that inform daily existence. It is a practical framework that guides how people collaborate, make decisions, and coexist sustainably as part of the local biodiversity (Martínez Luna 2009).

In Comunalidad, the community—not the individual—is at the center of life. Comunalidad is a living proposal for envisioning more sustainable and humane lifeways that challenge paradigms of extractive development, individualism, and consumerism. It proposes a community-centered worldview in which identity and culture are inseparable from communal life. Moreover, Comunalidad serves as a form of cultural resistance in the face of globalization and state-imposed development projects at the expense of environmental sustainability. Comunalidad articulates a pathway toward self-determination rooted in ancestral knowledge and practice (Martínez Luna 2016; Campos Navarrete and Zohar 2021).

Guerrero Osorio (2016) describes Comunalidad as a dynamic and living force—a movement, much like the swirling current of a river meeting a tree root. This imagery emphasizes the interconnected and continuous nature of Comunalidad, portraying its various elements as intertwined like a helix, rather than treating them as separate or rigidly defined components. Comunalidad can serve as an approach for recontextualizing STEM in culture to support culturally relevant, revitalizing, and sustaining learning experiences for Latinx audiences in ISL environments. When museums activate the dynamic and interrelated components of Comunalidad in their offerings in partnership with their Latinx communities, they honor a legacy of STEM embedded in cultural traditions, since many traditions have scientific underpinnings that are interwoven with belief systems, worldviews, and practices tied to Latinx identities and cultures. The four components of Comunalidad are: Relationship to Place; Reciprocity; Self-determination; Fiesta or Feast (see figure below).

In the context of ISL, Comunalidad components, as an interwoven system, reflect the needs, interests, and aspirations of both the ISL organization and the communities. Thus, Comunalidad can be adapted and applied to the work of museum practitioners, as they strive to co-create STEM projects and experiences that are attuned to the aspirations of Latinx audiences. When STEM is practiced as an integral way of life, it is intertwined with other aspects of communal participation.

       ● Relationship to Place refers to Understanding Your Environment: the natural world as well as the environment and culture of the ISL organization and the environment and culture of Latinx partners and community organizations.

       ● Reciprocity refers to acts of Mutual Help, Gratitude, and Ceremony with museum colleagues, community partners, and the Earth.

       ● Self-determination refers to Decision-making on Behalf of Your Community. This pertains to ensuring clear roles and responsibilities for the ISL organization and community partners to set clear and realistic goals, roles, and expectations—a hallmark of co-creation.

       ● Fiesta refers to Feast and Celebration, which provide an important opportunity to reflect on a job well done, take stock of lessons learned, and affirm the well-being of all participants in a project.

By strengthening Relationship to Place museums acknowledge a deep connection to Latinx audiences’ countries of origin and their specific traditions that remain culturally strong through the generations.

Reciprocity supports cultural relevance, revitalization, and sustainability because it acknowledges gratitude in Latinx cultures—the most authentic expression of reciprocity. Reciprocity sustains biodiversity in the natural environment as well as the community’s spiritual well-being. Thus, reciprocal behaviors also manifest as spiritual practices involving the family, the community, and the Earth.

Museums can practice Self-determination by co-creating learning experiences with members of their Latinx communities, setting clear roles and responsibilities for all partners, and building capacity in ISL practitioners to hold and respect the tensions that inevitably arise when recontextualizing STEM practices in culture. Important decisions are considered in the context of the entire community beyond individual benefit.

Fiesta or feasting and celebration goes hand in hand with sustaining Latinx cultural identity. Beyond a party, a fiesta is an act of affirmation of the well-being of the collective. Latinx communities do celebrations for everything—a new job, graduation, religious occasions, quinces, life and death rituals, and more! Fiesta and celebration are essential components of joy as well as closure and reflection on shared accomplishments.

When museums activate the components of Comunalidad in their offerings in partnership with their local Latinx community, they are striving to provide culturally relevant, revitalizing, and sustaining learning experiences for their audiences.

IV. Comunalidad and Indigenous Ways of Knowing in the Latinx Context

Dr. Martínez Luna's concept of Comunalidad and Indigenous Ways of Knowing are deeply interconnected, since both emphasize the holistic, relational, and community-based nature of knowledge and existence. Indigenous Ways of Knowing, like Comunalidad, emphasize interconnectedness, relationality, and the integration of knowledge with daily life and community well-being. Both perspectives challenge fragmentary, individualistic, or extractive approaches to knowledge and education. They advocate for a return to practices that honor the whole human within the collective, including spiritual, biocultural, and ecological dimensions of existence. Indigenous knowledge systems and Comunalidad frame STEM not as a discrete set of technical disciplines, but as part of a holistic lifeway—deeply rooted in relationships, belonging to place, and lived experiences. Knowledge is generated and transmitted through observation, storytelling, ceremony, and intergenerational learning, emphasizing interconnectedness among humans and nature. This orientation positions STEM not merely as a tool for understanding the world, but as a way of being in respectful and sustainable relationship with the Universe—where knowledge serves the well-being of both people and the ecosystems where people belong.

Like Comunalidad, integrating Indigenous Ways of Knowing into STEM education challenges dominant narratives and expands the possibilities for STEM learning that is pluralistic, culturally relevant, revitalizing, and sustaining. Keane (2008) discusses the importance of integrating Indigenous worldviews into science education to enrich students’ understanding and appreciation of diverse knowledge systems. Similarly, Kimmerer (2013), in her book Braiding Sweetgrass intertwines Indigenous knowledge with scientific perspectives, advocating for a more holistic approach to understanding the natural world and emphasizing the value of Indigenous Ways of Knowing in science education. Moreover, Carpena-Méndez, Virtanen, and Williamson (2022) explore Indigenous pedagogies as intergenerational, relational, and land-based frameworks, emphasizing the need for educators to cultivate relational learning through sensory, perceptive, and affective capacities to regenerate local biocultural knowledge beyond the classroom.

In essence, Indigenous Ways of Knowing and Comunalidad offer frameworks for understanding and living in the world that are rooted in community, self-determination, and a profound connection to the land, the sky, and each other. Recognizing the values embedded in frameworks such as Comunalidad invites a critical reexamination of whose knowledge is prioritized in science education and opens the door for more accessible and culturally grounded approaches to STEM learning. Because of its Latin-American roots and context, Comunalidad can serve as a culturally relevant framework with strong affinity with Latinx communities in, and outside of, the United States.

In most STEM learning experiences, STEM has been taught at the expense of other ways of knowing the world. The debate on the nature of science from mainstream and Indigenous perspectives can be used as a platform for building the ISL field’s capacity to showcase a plurality of worldviews, making STEM engagement more authentic for all communities. As ISL organizations strive to more effectively engage all communities in STEM learning, it is important to consider that all cultures practice science within their own paradigms, with STEM interwoven within cultures, not separate from them (Hawkins and Ávila Vera 2021; Maryboy, Begay, and Peticolas 2012).

V. Comunalidad in Professional Development Efforts for ISL Practitioners

Two NSF-funded professional development projects for ISL practitioners—Cosmic Serpent and Cambio—utilized Indigenous Ways of Knowing and Comunalidad to decenter dominant norms of STEM learning and practice.

Cosmic Serpent was a four-year project that began in 2007, led by the Indigenous Education Institute in collaboration with the University of California, Berkeley, the Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian, and other partners. The project’s goal was to meet the needs of diverse museum audiences using culturally responsive approaches to STEM learning and bridging Indigenous and Eurocentric science paradigms in ISL organizations. The Cosmic Serpent professional development effort fostered mutual respect and understanding between Indigenous communities and ISL professionals. The project engaged 162 participants—including staff from 19 tribal museums and 41 science centers, and 23 tribal community members—through a series of in-person workshops held in the Northwest, Southwest, California, and Hawai`i (Western United States) regions. The project culminated in the publication of a legacy document, “Cosmic Serpent: Collaboration with Integrity” (Maryboy, Begay, and Peticolas 2012), which documented the process and outcomes of the initiative. “Cosmic Serpent” exemplifies a commitment to integrating Indigenous knowledge systems into informal science education, promoting a pluralistic approach to STEM learning. The effort set the stage for a national conference “I-WISE: Indigenous Worldviews in Science Education (Maryboy et al. 2021) to build capacity in the ISL field and to inform program officers of the NSF and other federal agencies about the benefits of bridging worldviews of STEM. Cosmic Serpent and I-WISE utilized the Comunalidad framework to give visibility to the Indigenous roots of Latinx audiences in the United States, 25% of which self-identify as Indigenous or Native American, such as Maya, Taino, Quiche, Aymara, or Quechua, among others (Parker et al. 2015).

Cambio, meaning “change” in Spanish, was a six-year collaboration between the Exploratorium and CCLI (2) that began in 2019.   The project wove together CCLI’s diversity and inclusion initiative for museums with the Exploratorium’s experience engaging Latinx audiences in STEM and the results of the GENIAL Summit (3) (García-Luis et. al. 2017) that identified needs, opportunities, and actionable insights for Latinx engagement in ISL environments. Cambio’s vision encouraged organizations to shift their practices at all levels by examining the cultural dimensions and intersections of Latinx communities, cultural expressions of STEM, and shifts in organizational practice. Cambio provided professional development experiences to annual cohorts of up to six institutions. In total, Cambio engaged 95 participants from 19 institutions including children’s museums, science centers, botanical gardens, and zoos with locations spanning 13 states from five regions of the United States. The program focused on building cultural competence specific to Latinx communities and fostering shifts in organizational practice to create STEM experiences that are culturally relevant, revitalizing, and sustainable.

Participating institutions engaged in monthly virtual workshops, coaching sessions, and collaborative projects to develop and implement strategic initiatives to strengthen engagement of Latinx communities in their organizations. Through this approach, Cambio went beyond broadening participation in STEM by equipping institutions with the knowledge, resources, and tools to welcome and engage Latinx audiences. To anchor the professional development experience, Cambio used three interwoven curricular strands: Latinx Communities, Cultural Expressions of STEM, and Shifts in Organizational Practice. Comunalidad was the principal tool for building capacity and fostering discussions about Cultural Expressions of STEM. The Cambio website (4) has a set of resources for museums to better engage Latinx audiences, including upcoming Comunalidad and Cambio project videos, and a comprehensive set of tools that were developed by the Cambio project for museum practitioners.

Cambio utilized the Comunalidad framework to contextualize STEM practices in Latinx cultures and foster an environment for collective knowledge-making through a cultural lens. Co-creation for cultural relevance, revitalization, and sustainability necessitates strong relationships with Latinx communities to understand and value cultural expressions, many of which incorporate STEM content and practices. Museum practitioners were invited to examine structures and interrogate assumptions that favor dominant norms of teaching and learning STEM. Transformational change leading to epistemic pluralism in science museums, or the idea that there isn't just one right way to understand or know the world, can happen when institutions reposition STEM as a cultural practice, challenging dominant worldviews of STEM and requiring museums to share power and take risks (Garibay and Huerta Migus 2014; Hawkins and Ávila Vera 2021).

VI. Examples of Comunalidad in ISL environments

At the Exploratorium in San Francisco, we partner with Latinx and Indigenous communities to create programs that highlight how STEM is woven into cultural traditions and daily life. Using Comunalidad, museum professionals can demonstrate how STEM is often practiced holistically through food, art, and celebration, rather than as separate academic subjects. The project and case study examples below showcase Comunalidad in action.

The Engineering and Physics of a Woven Bridge

Each year, Quechua elder Victoriano Arizapana Huallhua leads 1,000 community members in the Cusco Region of Peru in renewing the precolonial Q’eswachaka bridge using traditional knowledge, native grass, and collective ceremony, blending Indigenous engineering, environmental understanding, and cultural tradition.

The Q’eswachaka bridge (see Image 1), able to hold 4,000 pounds, illustrates concepts like compression and tensile strength and is featured in a hands-on family activity at the Exploratorium’s Engineering Day (see Image 2).

10,000 Years of Science in a Corn Tortilla

At the Exploratorium’s annual Mother’s Day Community Day, visitors celebrate Latinx traditions through music, dance, and hands-on activities like tortilla-making led by Maya elder Maria Ávila Vera. Through this demonstration, families learn about nixtamalization—an ancestral Mesoamerican process using alkaline elements to unlock nutrients in corn—highlighting the deep cultural and scientific knowledge embedded in everyday practices.

The Chemistry of Natural Pigments

At the 2024 Exploratorium Mother’s Day event, expert weavers from the women-led Vida Nueva cooperative in Oaxaca demonstrated how they use traditional knowledge and chemistry to create over 300 natural dye colors. By adjusting pH with lime juice or ash and using alum to strengthen dye-fiber bonds, they reveal the science behind vibrant, enduring colors rooted in ancestral practice.

Living with the Stars on the Day of the Dead

Since 2023, the Exploratorium has partnered with The Marigold Project in San Francisco and traditional knowledge holders from Mesoamerican countries to host a Día de los Muertos event blending art, science, and ritual. Timed with celestial events tied to ancestral traditions, the celebration features traditional altars from Mexico and Guatemala, ofrendas by local Chicano artists, and hands-on activities exploring cultural astronomy and the chemistry of traditional materials, creating a space for remembrance and cultural connection through science.

Case Study: ¡Plantásticas! Summer Exhibition

The 2023 ¡Plantásticas! exhibition at the Exploratorium explored plant science through Latinx and Ohlone cultural perspectives, offering hands-on activities in Spanish, English, and Chochenyo. Co-created with community partners, the exhibit highlighted traditional knowledge, shared decision-making, and allowed for inclusive design. It drew 28% Latinx visitors—an 8% increase—thanks to culturally rooted content and community-centered outreach.

Case Study: Scent Memories 

Scent Memories (5), an interactive feature of the ¡Plantásticas! exhibition was designed by a senior Latinx developer and invited visitors to crush aromatic plants in traditional molcajetes and reflect on the scents and memories they evoked—highlighting the importance of smell in connecting to heritage. Despite some staff questioning its scientific rigor, the exhibit team and community partners emphasized the cultural relevance, sensory engagement, and ancestral technology behind the experience. Visitor research showed Scent Memories was among the most popular and effective parts of the exhibit, offering a joyful, multigenerational space for storytelling, reflection, and cultural connection through sensory learning. 

Case Study: Día de la Ingeniería | Engineering Day

Día de la Ingeniería | Engineering Day (6), a 27-year collaboration between the Exploratorium and Society of Hispanic Professional Engineers or SHPE, offers free bilingual STEM activities and panels for Latinx families. In 2023, the event featured the ¡Plantásticas! exhibit and interactive programs co-created with local Latinx community members to reflect their culture and needs.

VII. Conclusion

Jaime Martínez Luna describes Comunalidad—Relationship to Place, Reciprocity, Self-determination, and Fiesta—as a way his Zapotec community lives within an interconnected reality (Martínez Luna 2024). Rooted in Indigenous origins, these values resonate broadly across Latinx cultures, emphasizing family, community, and reciprocity. Comunalidad is a collective approach to life that reflects how STEM learning can be experienced communally, making science more meaningful and accessible by connecting with Latinx cultural values and encouraging learners to bring their full cultural intelligence into STEM learning experiences.

Though rooted in Latin American Indigenous knowledge and explored here through Latinx communities in the United States, Comunalidad holds an expansive promise. When applied through authentic partnerships with communities, Comunalidad can expand who feels seen and included in STEM—both for historically marginalized groups and those from dominant cultures. It offers a way for all people to engage with multiple knowledge systems without having to abandon their own cultural identities. In this way, Comunalidad can support ISL research and practice to embrace cultural complexity in STEM learning environments. It can also challenge museums to go beyond transactional relationships and invites them to co-create spaces of shared belonging. STEM learning can be reframed as a communal and relational practice, honoring ancestral knowledge, cultural identity, and scientific curiosity as an ensemble. Through long-term partnerships, co-created exhibits, and programs that reflect local voices and relationships to land and sky, museums can become places of trust, relevance, and inspiration for Latinx visitors and for all people. Ultimately, Comunalidad doesn't simply invite Latinx communities into STEM—it redefines STEM as a practice of belonging.

Acknowledgments

The author sincerely thanks Veronica García-Luis, Cecilia Garibay, Jenni Martin, Stefanie Simons, and the Cambio Leadership Team for their invaluable feedback and support, which greatly enriched this article. Their collaboration and collegial spirit deeply strengthened the work.

Author Bio

Isabel Hawkins is Senior Scientist and Director of the Osher Fellowship Program at the Exploratorium. Born in Córdoba, Argentina, she earned a Ph.D. in astrophysics from UCLA and spent 20 years as researcher on NASA satellites at UC Berkeley before focusing on science education. She collaborates with Indigenous scholars on cultural astronomy and food sovereignty and has been a Fulbright Global Scholar and Smithsonian consultant. She can be reached at ihawkins@exploratorium.edu.

Endnotes

(1) There are many terms of identity for referring to the group(s) of people whose backgrounds are connected to Latin America and/or Spanish-speaking cultures. These terms, including Hispanic, Chicano, Latino, Latinx, and Latine have emerged from distinctive historical, geographical, and sociopolitical contexts. In this article, we use the gender-neutral term “Latinx” to refer to a Latino/Latina person. “Latinx” is preferred by U.S.-born Latinos/Latinas who want to be more inclusive and gender neutral. The equivalent term in Spanish is “Latine.” 

(2) CCLI (Cultural Competence Learning Institute) is a partnership among Children’s Discovery Museum (CDM), Association of Science and Technology Centers (ASTC), Association of Children’s Museums (ACM), and Garibay Group. ccliexperience.org 

(3) The GENIAL Summit website can be found at exploratorium.edu/education/genial 

(4) The Cambio Project website can be found at cambioexperience.org 

(5)  exploratorium.edu/exhibits/scent-memories 

(6)  https://www.exploratorium.edu/visit/calendar/engineering-day

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